Substance abuse in the United States is a major health concern regardless of the kind of substance that is in question. While some people are more likely to deal with drug addiction of illicit drugs that bring up a slew of legalities, others will become addicted to those substances that are otherwise legal but still can have long term ramifications on one’s health. When looking at these different kinds of addiction, the development and maintenance of successful substance abuse prevention programs is even more important for long term community health. Through a breakdown of the different aspects of these kinds of programs, it is possible to see not only the need but also the difficulties faced in developing and maintaining these resources on a large scale. In conjunction with this research, an interview with Pat Wegleitner, a prevention specialist at The House of Extra Measures in Houston Texas, adds to this breakdown with first hand thoughts and perspectives on the issue of maintenance and development of these kinds of programs.

The first thing to understand is what constitutes a substance abuse prevention program and what it means for the discussion of maintenance. Substance abuse prevention programs are key parts of businesses and organizations nationwide due, in part, to government movements in recent decades to help curb these issues as an issue of public health. With regard to schools, “the Drug-Free Schools and Communities Act Amendments of 1989… require institutions of higher education (IHEs) to develop and implement programs to prevent the abuse of alcohol and the use of illicit drugs by students and employees, including faculty” (Alcohol & Drug Abuse Prevention Program, 2015). The development of these kinds of programs are meant to help curb these problems before they start and yet this is only one form of prevention program as some people had already fallen off the metaphorical wagon and need additional care. While the initial version of preventing substance abuse is admirable, it is far from perfect and it is those who relapse into abuse that need a greater amount of care from these programs to prevent further abuse. According to Wegleitner, The House of Extra Measures includes a variety of services including, but not limited to, health promotion, prevention, intervention, treatment, and ongoing recovery support (Wegleitner). When dealing with people recovering from addiction, it is the balance of all of these different factors that can minimize chances of relapse while maximizing the possibility that someone striving to avoid further abuse have for a positive outlook in their future. In either case, prevention programs are essential to help with alleviating the issue of substance abuse as a health concern on a national level both before and after issues arise regardless of the age of those patients helped.

When developing this kind of program, there are a number of key points that must be taken into consideration as development of this kind of program requires for the administration to take the needs of everyone into account. Planners of the programs“should recognize that treatment may occur in different settings over time (i.e., residential, outpatient) and that much of the recovery process typically occurs outside of or following treatment” (Substance Abuse Treatment for Persons With Co-Occurring Disorders, 2005). Long term participation in this kind of program is also stressed since program developers understand that the relapse is more likely with substance abuse than in other kinds of recover programs. In fact, prevention of initial abuse is difficult enough, but the focus of prevention in relapse is another point of contention because relapsers need even more help maintaining sobriety. “Relapsers need to learn about the relapse process and how to manage it. It’s not a bad idea to get their family and Twelve Step Sponsors involved. The education needs to reinforce four major messages” including that it is normal and not to be ashamed of, there are warning signs of relapse, management is possible, and there is always hope (Gorski, 2003). This is a point that The House of Extra Measures must deal with regularly because they are a transitional program. When transitioning from a rehab facility to living in a world of temptation, Wegleitner points out that the prevention of further relapse is a continuing point of worry as staff is concerned that patients cannot easily stave off temptation alone. As a result, these kinds of programs do have a number of difficulties in both the development but also the maintenance of these programs.

Regardless of whether or not the program is meant to prevent substance abuse from ever occurring in the first place or if it is designed to prevent relapse, problems will invariably arise as the program takes shape and evolves over time. One of the key problems for this kind of program stems from the issue of individual actions taken by those who are participating in their own recovery. While the intention of those taking part in these programs is often noble and necessary for their own health, many programs are developed like The House of Extra Measures as a high structure and high accountability environment where those who are part of the program are held accountable for their actions (Wegleitner, 2017). This is because of the fact that these programs do not usually succeed if people are left to their own devices and fail to receive support and feel that others have faith in their ability to change their lives for the better. “Relapse prevention planning probably won’t work unless the relapser is sober and in control of themselves. Detoxification and a few good days of sobriety are needed in order to make relapse prevention planning work” (Gorski, 2003). Additionally, these prevention strategies have a number of concerns dealing with how to achieve target goals for those involved in the program through an open, honest, and supportive environment. This method of pushing for a specific goal through implementation is often done through keeping tabs on risk and protective factors. These factors “are the primary targets of effective prevention programs used in family, school, and community settings. The goal of these programs is to build new and strengthen existing protective factors and reverse or reduce risk factors” (Preventing Drug Use among Children and Adolescents, 2003). By focusing on the ways to protect the interests of those taking part in the program, its overall sustainability is more manageable even when there are so many factors working against it. Therein, while the problems that arise with the maintenance of substance abuse prevention programs are commonplace and are often dealt with at a number of levels in the organization, maintenance then becomes key to both the success of the program but also in mitigating risk that it faces.

The House of Extra Measures offers “a save, supportive community that is Peer Support driven” where they “teach young men skills that will help them in realizing there is a wonderful life free from alcohol and drugs” (Wegleitner, 2017). The maintenance of the administrative processes of this kind of program is difficult because it is not simply a program of volunteers or of community support. As an organization that must be funded in order to provide healthcare and administrative personnel in order to function, those who are in charge of this form of initiative deal with different issues than other non-profit groups. Unlike other kinds of public initiatives, outpatient treatment programs to prevent relapse into substance abuse must deal with administration much as a hospital or business would need. As outpatient programs have evolved, so have their complexity and “to ensure that programs are effective and financially successful, OT administrators need to be skilled in managing the business aspects of treatment. As they develop strategies, plans, and professional relationships for their programs, executives also need to be efficient, creative, innovative, and future oriented, actively looking for new opportunities” (Substance Abuse: Administrative Issues in Outpatient Treatment, 2006). The development of new methods of peer support and innovative activities can help to promote wellness while working to also prevent future abuse of substances. As a result, these program require constant maintenance and adaptation in order to both remain effective but also to prevent further problems and issues of substance abuse.

In terms of substance abuse prevention when leaving rehabilitation programs, groups such as The House of Extra Measures have a number of key tenets that must be agreed to by anyone who wants to take part in the program. After leaving rehabilitation centers, many people feel as though they are in a position where they are unable to function normally in society or else they might relapse. These programs, as a result, require the attendees to be accountable for a variety of responsibilities in the program itself including a curfew, chores, volunteering, and even counseling if the substance abuse program caused problems with loved ones or spouses before admittance (Wegleitner, 2017). This is important because these kinds of sober homes do not have the same restrictions are rehabilitation clinics and other kind of closed campus programs. “Residents aren’t bound to the sober living home’s campus and can come and go as they please. This allows individuals in recovery to feel like they are easing back into normal life and can start going back to their daily tasks and responsibilities. Although sober living homes are less restrictive than inpatient facilities” they still require structure and a supportive environment to be successful (Sober Living,2016). Many programs like this exist around the country but they are difficult to maintain from an administration’s point of view because every individual must be accountable for their actions even when they are not inside the walls of the building or complex. This reinforces the need for a sense of understanding and group support in these kinds of situations. If a patient does not feel that they are supported or if their stress level increases because of discord within the group home, it is more likely that they will regress into dangerous habits which defeats the program’s purpose. “Part of staying in a sober living home is creating positive camaraderie to reinforce the desire to abstain from drugs and alcohol. This support system allows residents to avoid the isolation that can sometimes come with returning home while in recovery” (Sober Living, 2016). Staying sober is not something that many addicts can do alone and even if the addiction does not exist due to previous issues of abuse, even those who are dealing with programs designed to prevent before substance abuse starts must still overcome peer pressure and personal desire.

Overall, programs such as The House of Extra Measures and other substance abuse prevention programs serve a purpose that is both necessary and honorable in society. People have natural predilection toward certain tendencies and abuse of various substances is just one of these kinds of personal issues. Through maintenance of these programs by strict administrative guidelines, substance abuse prevention programs can flourish and grow. Individuals who enter into these programs need support and reassurance from others and through careful planning and maintenance, the success rate of these kinds of programs can reach levels that would otherwise be impossible.

References

Alcohol & Drug Abuse Prevention Program. (2015). University of St. Augustine. https://www.usa.edu/legal/alcohol-drug-abuse-prevention-program/.

Gorski, T. (2003). How to develop a RP plan. http://www.tgorski.com/gorski_articles/developing_a_relapse_prevention_plan.htm.

Preventing Drug Use Among Children and Adolescents. (2003). National Institute on Drug Abuse. https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/preventing-drug-abuse-among-children-adolescents-in-brief/chapter-3-applying-prevention-principles-to-drug-abuse-prevention-programs/how-are.

Sober Living. (2016). Avenues, A Recovery Community. https://www.avenuesrecovery.com/our-services/sober-living/.

Substance Abuse: Administrative Issues in Outpatient Treatment. (2006). Treatment Improvement Protocols. (46). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64075/.

Substance Abuse Treatment for Persons With Co-Occurring Disorders. (2005). Treatment Improvement Protocol. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64185/.

Wegleitner, P. (2017, December). E-mail interview.

Introduction

As we move further and further into the digital age, questions about what is or is not appropriate in terms of technological surveillance have become increasingly popular in mainstream culture both in terms of whether people are for or against these kinds of surveillance measures. Due to issues in the legal sector such a shootings of unarmed minors, riots in cities such as Ferguson, and other major changes in the socio-political climate of the United States, there has been an increase in the number of measures taken to ensure that the public is protected from law enforcement agencies. One such measure is a body mounted camera that is installed onto the uniform of officers nationwide. “A body-mounted camera is a video recording device used by law enforcement officers to record citizen interactions” (Otu, 2016). It is not meant to simply act as a recording, but instead it acts in a number of different ways as a deterrent, recorder, and verification of the issues that happen surrounding an incident.

The first question to ask is why these kinds of technology are becoming so popular. The idea is that by utilizing this kind of technology, officers will be less likely to act illegally against the public but at the same time that violators of public law will be less likely to retaliate against these officers. As a result, it is important to understand not only the ways in which this kind of technology can be used but also how it is perceived by the public. This is in part because of the fact that so many people feel as though motion capture technology violates their personal rights in a public court of law. “Citizens and police officers have the right to counsel in all possible criminal legal proceedings, but a body-worn camera captures this moment like never before and could be perceived negatively” (McCamman & Culhane, 2017). However, even with these objections, there has been a major push toward this kind of surveillance of the actions of officers nationwide. Even as people push back against the idea of increased government surveillance and intervention, this is one movement that has continued to move forward. In fact, “the introduction of body camera programs caught the attention of lawmakers in both federal and state governments. In December 2014, President Obama allocated $75 million of federal funding for police body cameras” (Slean, 2017). It is not simply a single frame issue but instead it encompasses the entirety of the criminal justice system of the United States of America. When this kind of issue permeates media between all different areas of socio-economic and socio-political activity across the country, it is something that must be taken seriously. After reviewing the literature, it is possible to see not only the way than which this is a positive possible technology but also the downfalls of early and overly rapid implementation of otherwise untested technology.

Identification of the Problem

In order to effectively determine how to approach this kind of subject, one must first actually analyze the ways in which the different tires come into contact with one another with regard to the subject. For example, many people have pointed out the idea that body camera technology is useful with regard to minimizing illegal acts committed by officers who were on duty when they feel that they are not being watched. In contrast, some point out that by utilizing body camera technology that those who commit crimes will be more likely to be convicted if they did something wrong while opponents against this kind of technology point out that information could be misconstrued for wrongful convictions. “One fact supporting [the] “maybe” assessment is that law enforcement officers are subject to more complaints by citizens than other public safety first responders; thus, they are subject to more scrutiny by their employers; and as a consequence, the security of their continued employment is subject to more peril” (Lippman, 2017). It is a double-edged sword because for those who are truly innocent it might not necessarily capture everything that would provide them the defense that they desire. Similarly, the same could be said for officers whose actions are taken out of context when viewed from the outside perspective of others. “Within the issue of transparency is a simple explanation for using body cameras: a body camera will provide an objective reality of what occurred during an encounter (Miller and Toliver, 2014). If a camera has recorded an event, and the recording is of sufficient quality to determine precisely what occurred or what was said, it will be easier to hold an officer accountable for their behaviour” (Phillips, 2016). When looking at this, the problem then is not necessarily whether or not this kind of technology can be useful but, instead, if it can be used in the context of the legal system that we have in the United States today. Does the literature and research into the subject show that the implementation of this kind of technology provides positive or negative reinforcement to the current situation in the United States both in the public and private sectors of law?

Literature Review

Reasons for the Implementation – Police Versus Populations

The first area of literature to analyze in terms of research is the reason for implementation of ready to wear body cameras for legal entities across the nation. This new technology has not only taken the United States by storm but, instead, has become a worldwide phenomenon both in terms of wearable technology but also with similar tech that is used such as closed circuit television in the United Kingdom. The idea is that cameras cannot lie and, therefore, provide a third-party viewpoint from the perspective of one of the members of an altercation. As a result, this results in “cameras functioning as “mechanisms of control by the people using transparency to check powerholders” (Wasserman, 2017). This refers both to those who are actually in power as it was originally intended but, also, with the idea that people are often able to get out of conviction due to Legal loopholes because of invalidated testimony. However, this is only the first aspect of why this kind of technology has become so popular and the current culture.

The viewpoint of the arresting officer in an altercation and the defendant who feels that they have been wronged by the legal justice system are often different and cause a further degradation of the legal framework. This brings up the idea of false complaints. For many researchers, this is “a key myth identified in the police accountability literature. In fact, the main problem in this area is developing a complaints system that is easy to access, robust in its investigations, independent, and gains public trust that there will not be any negative outcomes for making a complaint against police” (Palmer, 2016). However, the police are the ones who are held accountable for actions more often than not during an incident which does not alleviate the idea of blame As a result, the question is whether or not one or the other is at fault when they try to relay what actually occurred in any given situation. More often than not, it is primarily an issue that comes from the perspective of the detainee or the person who was arrested. In fact, this is not only an issue that plagues the United States but has been shown in studies around the globe. As a result, the question is how to best mitigate this problem on a large scale.

While the issue of misconstrued information is often laid on the detainee during trial, many will argue that the incident did not happen as it was relayed which is the reason this kind of technology is beneficial. For example, many of those arrested will say that they were wrongfully accused and video would only help their case. In one study from Australia, “the vast majority of detainees (80%; n=709), thought police BWCs were a ‘good idea’. Detainees were most likely to suggest that they were a good idea because they provided improved evidence of events, including arrests (32% of reasons given; n=230). Reasons given typically centred on the recordings giving a more accurate and complete record of events than would be given just through recollection or on the basis of notes or statements” (Taylor, Lee, Willis, & Gannoni, 2017). When reviewing this kind of evidence, it is not surprising that so many people are supportive of this measure from the public sector because they feel as though they are actually being served whereas previously so many people claimed that they were being discriminated against or that things did not occur in the way that they remembered. However, it is not only the public that is pushing for this kind of Reform.

It is not only the public that is promoting this kind of technology because of the possible positive ramifications. “Law enforcement agencies are rapidly getting on the body camera bandwagon because officers are realizing that recording encounters can help rebuild public trust, improve public as well as officer behavior, and protect against false complaints” (Fan, 2016). As perceptions of law and public relations falter, any positive reinforcement is welcome. It is in this way that the overall change is beneficial from the use of this kind of technology but at the same time is not perfect. Perceptions can shift but when both the public and legal agencies both see the positive attributes, it is also important to analyze the negative to act as a counter balance.

Perception of Positive Attributes

Why are both the public itself and legal entities so excited and gung-ho about the implementation of this kind of oversight technology? In the past, it was a common perception that the legal powers of the nation tended to be interconnected and we’re more likely to protect one another then someone who might have been wrongfully accused. Due to recent events, there has been a shift towards the idea of openness and a constant flow of communication between legal bodies and the public in general. “Body-worn cameras increase transparency and citizen views of police legitimacy. This claim has not been sufficiently tested. There have been virtually no studies of citizens’ views of the technology” (White, 2014). However, it is not simply the idea of transparency that have caused so many people to latch on to the idea of digital recording of events as they happened. In fact, legal aids have also seen the positives to this kind of technology in terms of the conviction of people who have committed crimes that might otherwise have gone unpunished. This had been shown in trials around the world both during issues of random violence but also predetermined acts against another person. “Body-worn cameras have evidentiary benefits that expedite resolution of citizen complaints or lawsuits and that improve evidence for arrest and prosecution. The available research offers support for the evidentiary benefits of body-worn camera systems” (White, 2014). This lends to the positive attributes of wearable technology and how it can be used in the future across any number of different fields. It is not a simple yes or no on why someone should use this kind of resource but, instead, there are many different factors all come into play with one another.

This lends to the positive attributes of wearable technology and how it can be used in the future across any number of different fields. It is not a simple yes or no on why someone should use this kind of resource but, instead, there are many different factors all come into play with one another. “Eyewitness perception and error is no small problem in the criminal justice system; research suggests that 64% of convictions that relied primarily on eyewitness testimony were incorrect (Gross et al., 2005). A variety of explanations for eyewitness error have been recognized” (Phillips, 2016). Therefore, wearable technology is only one such use of this kind of information gathering tech. Cell phones, CCTV, and a variety of other methods have also been used to help document events as they occur. This is an era of constantly evolving technology and so what might be state of the art one day could easily be replaced the next. “The advent of digital recording technology, particularly in the hands of the general public, and the growth of social media platforms, allow anyone with a cell phone to record and post a video; the police are often the subjects of these videos” (Phillips, 2016). As a result, it helps to reinforce what occurs and helps to clarify otherwise ambiguous situations. It is important to embrace this kind of Technology but the question is whether or not it is too quickly being used on a wide scale.

Problems with their Use

One major issue is how this kind of technology is used in the modern arena without it being fully accepted or tested. While some people are more welcoming of this kind of technology, others are reticent and it can be seen in how the existing laws are enforced. A key issue is how this kind of technology can be used against the police officers that wear them in comparison with how it can help to defend those people who are being videoed. While officers have long been given leeway and how they interact with their detainees, some worry that this will limit the force that they can employee even when suspect are violent. “The safety of the public depends upon the proper discharge of the police officers’ duties” but “police officers are concerned about body cams because they can be used as strong evidence against the officers wearing them, not just the suspects who may also be recorded by them. Therefore, the question turns upon who is the intended subject of the camera: the suspects, bystanders, or the officers?” (Meck, 2018). However, it is not simply this issue that comes into question but, instead, how the public perceives actions being taken to help protect the police when they, themselves, do not receive identical right to the footage.
In contrast to other kinds of information gathered against suspects of a crime, video footage is not necessarily given to all parties equally. Since legal status is a state matter, each state has differing views on how they should use this new technology. This is important to remember because not every state will use the technology on the same level or with the same ends as a goal. For example, in states, such as Texas, the footage is coming under scrutiny for going against the idea of transparency. According to the Austin American Statesman, “under Texas law, police officers facing disciplinary action have access to their footage before having to answer questions about the incident. Civil rights advocates say this only gives police time to get their story straight – a luxury not afforded to others involved in the incident – before putting anything on record, thus avoiding accountability” (Staff, 2017). This means that even though some will point out the positives of video surveillance with wearable technology, other than instead see it as a furthering of the existing problem of police versus public needs. These are key problems that must be analyzed in determining whether or not it is a positive or negative technology in the future.

Too Rapid of Implementation?

One key issue in this kind of technological use is that of the fact that it is being used too quickly and can lead to further problems if not monitored properly. Some people will latch on to any new technology if they feel that it will benefit the public no matter the consequences to social justice and social perceptions. The recent “widespread galvanization over body cameras exemplifies the human tendency, in times of tragedy, to latch on to the most readily available solution to a complex problem. But as the outcome of [one] case demonstrates, even when high-quality, graphic footage is available, officers may still not be indicted, let alone convicted” (Considering Police Body Cameras, 2015). Even though some people might be more likely to move towards this kind of Technology rapidly in comparison to others, it is important to remember that even though some might be supportive this is not mean that isn’t necessarily for the public good. In fact, when it technology or new policy is enacted to quickly it can have unforeseen ramifications that are unforeseen by those who feel that this might be a positive impact on the General Public. “This rapid adoption of technology in a low-information environment is not new to policing. The allure of the efficiencies and the promises of technology, coupled with social crises and other pressures, make rapid adoption without adequate research a familiar story” (Lum, 2016). In the end, the rapid implementation of wearable technology might benefit the public in the long run but those who are wrongfully convicted in the short-term have fewer and fewer options for recourse when they did not commit a crime. It is this duality that is important to remember since it can be a perilous road to go down when not carefully

Conclusions

The primary conclusion of this study is based on the idea that wearable technology is youthful but still has a number of problems that must be addressed in order to be effective in the long-term. While many people around the world have adopted the idea of wearable technology as the new savior of the legal system, others have, instead, pointed out that there are number of issues that still need to be addressed. “Police departments have been rushing to body cameras without sufficiently deciding what the goal is,” said Seth Stoughton, a former officer and a law professor at the University of South Carolina. “When no one is sure what it is supposed to do, no one knows if it is working”” (Carruthers, 2017). The overall conclusion to the information studied is that there is a wide berth of information that supports this movement. In fact, the information found against these kinds of wearable technology are far fewer than those who are in support of the same kind of technology. For some studies, the question is not about overall effectiveness but on certain instances such as when people resist the police. One such study suggests “that BWCs are an effective tool to reduce R2R incidents and serious external complaints. Specifically, the prevalence of R2R incidents and the prevalence and frequency of serious external complaints were significantly less for officers randomly assigned to wear BWCs” (Jennings, Lynch, and Fridell, 2016). For others, it is the idea that it promotes visibility. In either case, the result is that the technology has positive implications but it must be used in a way that benefits everyone regardless of position.

Recommendation

While the goal of police oversight is admirable, it must be taken in stride. Wearable technology is something that can have a positive impact on the modern legal system if used in the correct way. As a result, it is something that should be used but needs to be limited in terms of wide ranging implementation. This can help to minimize problems with the ways it can be misused while reinforcing existing perceptions of positive change in the issue of transparency in the legal system. It is a fine line that must be walked but can be done with the correct methods of implementation.

References

Carruthers, W. (2017). Study: Body Cameras Have Little Effect on Police Behavior. NewsMax.com.

Considering Police Body Cameras. (2015). Harvard Law Review.

Fan, M. (2016). Privacy, Public Disclosure, Police Body Cameras: Policy Splits. Alabama Law Review. 68(2).

Jennings, W., Lynch, M., and Fridell, L. (2016). Evaluating the impact of police officer body-worn cameras (BWCs) on response-to-resistance and serious external complaints: Evidence from the Orlando police department (OPD) experience utilizing a randomized controlled experiment. Journal of Criminal Justice. 43(6).

Lippman, G. (2017). Police Body Cameras Part II: Will Body Cameras Improve Policing in Florida?. The Florida Bar Journal.

Lum, C. (2016). Body-Worn Cameras—Rapid Adoption in a Low-Information Environment?. Translational Crimonology.

McCamman, M. and Culhane, Scott. (2017). Police Body Cameras and Us: Public Perceptions of the Justification of the Police Use of Force in the Body Camera Era. Translational Issues in Psychological Science. 3(2).

Meck, S. (2018).Focusing the Lens of Justice: The Implementation of Police Body Cameras Is a Management Right, Not a Mandatory Subject of Collective Bargaining. Labor and Employment Law. Florida Bar Journal.

Otu, N. (2016). Police Body Cameras: Seeing May Be Believing. Salus Journal. 4(3).

Palmer, D. (2016). The Mythical Properties of Police Body-Worn Cameras: A Solution in the Search of a Problem. Surveillance & Society. 14(1)

Phillips, S. (2016). Eyes are not Cameras: The Importance of Integrating Perceptual Distortions, Misinformation, and False Memories into the Police Body Camera Debate. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice. 12(1).

Slean, B. (2017). PUBLIC SECTOR COLLECTIVE BARGAINING AND THE UNILATERAL IMPLEMENTATION OF POLICE BODY CAMERAS.

Staff. (2017). Access questions remain for police body cameras. Austin American-Statesman.

Taylor, E., Lee, M., Willis, M., and Gannoni, A. (2017). Police detainee perspectives on police body-worn cameras. Australian Institute of Criminology.

Wasserman, H. (2017). Recording of and by Police: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly. The Journal of Gender, Race, & Justice. 20(1).

White, M. (2014). Police Officer Body-Worn Cameras: Assessing the Evidence. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.

Throughout history, perceptions of health have switched time and time again with regard to what is or is not healthy. This is not a uniform shift in perception from one culture to the next but, instead, concepts of health shifts based on time, culture, and a variety of other factors that all come together to create an overarching theme of is not beneficial to a person’s well being. When we discuss the idea that “being healthy isn’t something that can be argued about” since some things are supposed to be good for a person regardless of what others think, the fallacy of the argument is clear. Perceptions of healthcare are created because of society’s stress on socioeconomic stratification and the need for people to receive adequate care as dictated by their peers and society as a whole.

When looking at the concept of healthcare for people, it is first important to point out the fact that the very division of health resources is a reason that socioeconomic and sociocultural classes create a difference in what is considered good for a person’s general health. When we talk about the issue of what is healthy, each class within a culture has different views on what constitutes healthy living and what actions can give the best overall benefits to their health. Health, as a result, can best be defined as the concept of what is good for the body in terms of general conditioning and healthy living is a state of completing daily activities in the way that best promotes health. When someone is in bad health or in a position where their health is failing, it tends to be from living in a manner that is not healthy according to common perceptions. This does not mean a direct cause of a health condition, such as a broken bone, but instead it is a period when someone’s health declines due to living in a manner that directly leads to the damage such as a high fat diet causing arterial clogging. As a result, it is important to remember that there is a difference in health in terms of the functioning of the body and being healthy when someone is living in a way that promotes health in accordance with what their position in society dictates is their best form of living.

In addition to societal pressure, it is also important to remember that some groups are not always part of the sector of society that determines what is acceptable as only those in a position of social power and influence can help to dictate what is good and bad for the group as a whole. Historically, the idea of who is or is not part of a society has dictated whether or not they will be given adequate healthcare coverage since some groups are considered a more integral part of society. “Personhood in the past has also been used less capaciously to exclude specific humans: women, slaves, Jews, certain racial groups, the disabled—those who, for one reason or another, were believed unworthy or incapable of rationality and self-governance” (Kittay, 2005). As a result, some groups were given less access to healthcare because of the fact that they were not deemed as worth as others. This then led to a separate change in terms of what is or is not considered healthy because these subgroups then determined what would keep them well when they lacked the access to medication, health services, and other options by those in power. Racial, economic, cultural, and a number of other differences led to each group coming up with their own concept of healthy living in part because of the idea of being part of society but also because ostracized groups also tend to be in different social and economic circles than those who create precepts of health.. However, this is only one of the reasons that healthy living is different from one group to the next because each group then developed their own rituals and processes to stave off illness.

Due to differences in social, cultural, and economic differences, good health then continues this trend because social morality and perception change due to the influences of those in power. While those in power might be a minority of the population, at times those who are part of the majority population then do take power and there is a shift in economic power and, subsequently, the kinds of styles of living that are healthy and unhealthy. As society shifts its perceptions on a given subject with regard to individual identity, it directly affects what is considered healthy for each group as well as who is or is not to receive treatment. In the 20^th century alone, shifts in perceptions regarding gender, sexuality, race, and ethnicity all occurred which led to changes in how people received treatment for maladies and health issues. When looking at a moral or ethical issue such as this “philosophers prefer to identify the concept of the “person” as the normative category, while designating “human being” as a merely empirical, descriptive one. Personhood holds open the possibility of moral parity to nonhuman beings: heavenly beings, extra-terrestrial rational creatures, our moral sisters and brothers in yet undiscovered universes” (Kittay, 2005). However, philosophical debate only goes so far in an arena of social perception and government. Therefore, when a group is not deemed worthy of healthcare and assistance to receive treatment for problems that they are facing, they are more likely to continue having these issues than others.

In terms of socioeconomic trends, the concept of social perception of a group or individual’s worth and subsequent value in terms of what they consider to be healthy, is especially evident as some treatments. The healthcare system in the United States is one that tends to favor the rich because those who can afford treatments that have health benefits but are more expensive have access to a factor of healthy living that others will never achieve. Even some life saving or changing procedures can cost people hundreds of thousands of dollars if they do not have adequate insurance and yet insurance can be denied due to a higher likelihood of someone contracting these health concerns. For example, sickle-cell anemia is more prominent in African American individuals than Caucasians and, in theory, if this was a health concern then their insurance rates could be higher. As a result, ethnic background provides a basis for different levels of healthcare because it only reinforces the idea that some people are more worthy of receiving assistance for healthcare even though they do not have any way to change a basic part of their genetic makeup. Contract theorists “regard moral constraints as social rules that rational people will agree to accept, for their mutual benefit, on condition that other people accept them as well” (Rachels, 2001). In truth, however, only those in power help to construct these social rules and those who are affected do not necessarily acquiesce to the decision but must deal with it because of a lack of options.

When we then expand on how this differentiation moves into areas of economic perception of health, it is also important to note that while medical aid is given to some groups over others, basic issues and concepts of the body do not change from one group to the next. In theory, this would mean that every individual should be given the same forms of treatment based on their needs instead of on their background. “Blood pressure is hydraulics, strength is mechanics, nutrition is combustion, limbs are levers, joints are ball-in-socket… Rather it expresses a will, on the part of each and every individual, to discover and regulate the machine-like processes in his own body” (Greif, n.d.). However, each economic strata in society receives different kinds of care and the result is that perceptions of healthcare and what is considered healthy living differs from one group to the next even though it should be more uniform based on science. Ethically, doctors take an oath to do no harm and yet the current healthcare system leads to harm being done because some individuals cannot afford potentially life altering or life saving medical care. Diets are a similar issue because some economic levels in society have less access to the same goods and services as others. For example, lower income groups tend to consume food that has different levels of salt and fat than those who are in a higher income bracket because foods that are “healthier” tend to be less cost effective. “Whether something is good or bad depends entirely on the reasons that can be given for or against it; therefore, if we have identical reasons for or against two things, they are equally good or bad” (Rachels, 2001). Economic reasons tend to dictate who has access to different options which then further the problem of healthcare and healthy living as a social divider.

One example of something that many people consider health currently is the Paleo Diet. Due to increasing levels of obesity and unhealthy living, diets such as this were developed to promote rapid weight loss based on tenets laid out in a diet that hearkens back to prehistoric times – or so it claims By changing the base diet to include the same kinds of foods that our collective ancestors ate, such as lean meats and vegetables in their raw form, while also removing processed foods such as wheat flour and the like, the diet says that we are working in the same manner as our ancient hominid ancestors. However, this is also a diet that does not come easy financially to many people because of the fact that so many who live in poverty must be able to afford food and much of this diet uses higher quality cuts of meat, expensive portions of fish, and vegetables which can actually be very expensive in certain times of the year. In contrast, lower income households might need to eat more canned beans, bread, rice, and other foods that are not deemed appropriate for the diet in order to servive. . Society had deemed this diet healthy and yet it has near impossible requirements for those who do not fall into certain socioeconomic categories in society. This is only one trend in perceptions of health and while it is one that does have scientific backing in terms of how it can be seen as good for the body, it also does not allow for the fact that some people do not have the financial resources to conform easily to this diet. The result is that those individuals who are living in lower economic classes and cannot take part in this form of healthy evening are, as a result, eating in a manner that is unhealthy so when they gain weight people view them negatively. They do not have the choice necessarily but society tells us that certain diets are healthy and others are not, even though people can gain or lose weight regardless of their diet. . Each time a “new” diet is created or a new determination of what is considered healthy by the government is announced there is a shift in the public perception of health for everyone. However, even though these changes are forced into public perception, it still does not mean that everyone can take part in these “healthy” acts due to lack of access to one or more resources that they otherwise might utilize.

Healthy living is not a stable perception in society because every healthy option is reinforced by social stigmatization, perception cause by socioeconomic class, and a general idea that those in power dictate what is good for a person and what is not. However, even with this push toward a “uniform” idea of health, this same uniformity is not afforded to everyone nor is it given equally within a single social strata. Every group in a culture has different perceptions of healthy living and access to healthcare because of the fact that society causes social stratification based on a number of different factors that shift from one generation to the next and, at times, even within just a few years. When determining what is or is not healthy, it is more important to look at individual needs and options in order to give the best possible course of healthy living for everyone regardless of personal identity or background.

References

Rachels, J. (2001). Killing and Letting Die. Encyclopedia of Ethics.

Kittay, E. (2005). At the Margins of Moral Personhood. Ethics. 116.

Greif, M. (n.d.). Against Exercise.

The Code of The Street: A Social Structure for Normalcy

Throughout history, people have often cited code to which they live their lives by and these same codes have helped shape societies around the world. For some, there is a history of codes of Honor which people live by as part of societal tradition. For others, there are codes of chivalry where gender roles and roles based on status must be recognized. However, when looking at the idea of a code it is important to remember that it involves out of a necessity within a community either real or perceived by a large group of people. When looking at the code of the streets, the same kind of necessity and shaping of sociocultural norms can be seen when looked at carefully. Threw an analysis of the idea of the code of the streets, the the background of why it was first perceived to be necessary, and the impact that it has had on different groups in society, the true nature and rationalization for naming this set of understood rules as the code of the streets becomes clear.

The first thing to understand is what the code of the streets implies within its existence as a social construct and then also the factors that lead to its need by inner city groups. “Of all the problems besetting the poor inner-city black community, none is more pressing than that of interpersonal violence and aggression. It wreaks havoc daily with the lives of community residents…. Muggings, burglaries, carjackings, and drug-related shootings… are now common enough to concern all urban and many suburban residents” (Anderson, 1994). Whenever this level of violence exists within a community, leaders within the group and those citizens who want to make a change will often try and come up with a way for the official law enforcement to deal with these issues quickly and efficiently. However, within inner-city communities, monetary constraints and heavy societal stigmatization from those from more affluent areas nearby tend to make the enactment of actual legal aid difficult. The result is that the community itself will often have to come together to create its own methodology of dealing with these issues of violence in a way that is both effective and efficient since resources are not as prevalent. This is the foundation for the code of the streets because it creates a set of values by which people live. As shown in a 2010 study, “neighborhood street culture moderates individual-level street code values on violence in neighborhoods where the street culture is widespread. In particular, the effect of street code values on violence is enhanced in neighborhoods where the street culture is endorsed widely” (Stewart & Simons, 2010). However, it is also important to look at the implications on modern Intercity Society as a whole.

The second thing to understand is what the code of the streets implies when looking at modern society for those within and outside of inner city areas. As previously explained, it is often been pointed out that there is a higher level of crime, violence, and interpersonal disputes between people within the community. As a result, law enforcement has a more difficult time enforcing the legal standard set out under the judicial system which, in turn, tends to lead to even more disruptions in what would be considered a normal way of life for people who live in more affluent communities. According to an article published by Anderson in the Atlantic, the inner city code “prescribe[s] both a proper comportment and a proper way to respond if challenged. They regulate the use of violence and so allow those who are inclined to aggression to precipitate violent encounters in an approved way. The rules have been established and are enforced mainly by the street-oriented” (Anderson, 1994). When law enforcement cannot adequately maintain legal precedents and there is not the financial and monetary backing within a community to positively make changes, this code allows for a set of normalcy within the community. This does not mean that what is considered normal in other parts of society would be able to follow the same code but, instead, it was developed to create structure for a lack of structure existed. It is an interesting concept because of the fact that societies as a whole must have some sort of structure or else everything would fall into complete and utter chaos whenever something went wrong with an individual or group of people. The result is that this code of the streets not only provides a secondary support for social structure, but also it provides a sense of secondary security for people who are often downtrodden due to their economic and social position within a greater whole. “The labels “decent” and “street,” which the residents themselves use, amount to evaluative judgments that confer status on local residents. The labeling is often the result of a social contest among individuals and families of the neighborhood” (Anderson, 1999). However, it is also important to look at how how to effectively make changes when they are possible in the same areas. It is a double edged sword modern society must utilize to help those who need it but also it leads to a dispute between the way that the groups want to live and how others perceive their actions.

Anderson goes further in his book to explain the causes for the code as well as the reason that it is maintained within the community. For those who live by the code of the streets, Anderson explains that there is a perception that they need to protect their community and those within it due to the pre-existing issues of violence and disruption to the everyday way of life. However, he also goes further to explain that this creates a separate kind of social hierarchy and feta perceptions within the community that allows for people to feel as though they are doing good for those around them while also limiting the effects of violence and other negative behaviors on their own lives. As a result, it is a domino effect because one person who does not want to be a victim then protect another person who then can protect someone else by trying to help reinforce the underlying use of the code – structure. By enforcing a set of unwritten rules about violence and the ways in which people can interact with one another to give their aid to other members of the community which then allows for everyone to see the benefits at least in some small part. “At the heart of the code is the issue of respect–loosely defined as being treated “right,” or granted the deference one deserves. However, in the troublesome public environment of the inner city, as people increasingly feel buffeted by forces beyond their control, what one deserves in the way of respect becomes more and more problematic and uncertain. This in turn further opens the issue of respect to sometimes intense interpersonal negotiation” (Anderson, 1999). It also goes further because it creates a sort of counter or subculture that exists outside the communities of the inner-city. In order to help curb issues of violence and, subsequently, minimize the perceived need for the code, changes to the way society deals with disenfranchised groups must take place.

“One of the primary reasons that the code exist is to create a sense of structure and communities where there is not a sufficient amount of trust Within the group with regard to those in power and those enforcing the laws that are enacted by the government. When the legal system in law enforcement both failed to protect a community in the inner city, the code of the streets tends to be a reinforcing structure but not only as a means to help to minimize issues of violence and crime between people within the community. In truth, it also creates a way for the community to bond and come together in the face of what they perceive to be a greater issue in which they are not being protected and taken care of by elected officials that they, themselves, voted for or against. The code of the streets is a reality for countless people. This is because “this hard reality can be traced to the profound sense of alienation from mainstream society and its institutions felt by many poor inner-city black people, particularly the young. The code of the streets is actually a cultural adaptation to a profound lack of faith in the police and the judicial system. As a result, the only way to actually help eliminate or counter a street culture that supports violence it’s to help reinforce the legal standing against those individuals who commit violent act. By protecting communities who feel disenfranchised, it would allow for those attending Community to feel as though their voices being heard and feel that the government is actually taking actions to help protect them. What are the underlying principles of the United States government is the idea of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. When individuals constantly feel as though they are living in a situation which could easily become violent, they will do what they must to protect themselves. As a result, without positive reinforcement within the community, violence and a free culture that tries to help minimize this by allowing transgressions to be handled in a certain way will always exist.

In the end, the code of the streets exist as a social system to protect a sense of community and works to create a way to manage violence. It can’t prevent the violence without help, but it allows for a sense of normalcy. Therefore, until changes to help alleviate these stressors exist, it will always have a place in the communities that feel it is needed.

References

Anderson, E. (1994). The code of the streets. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1994/05/the-code-of-the-streets/306601/.

Anderson, E. (1999). Code of the street: Decency, Violence, and the Moral Life of the Inner City.

Stewart, E., & Simons, R. (2010). Race, Code of the Street, and Violent Delinquency. Criminology. 48(2).

When looking at how individuals can help one another in a variety of different instances, it is possible to see the reasons from which individuals attempt to give aid because of an innate desire to help another person. For many people this desire is based in the same need to nurture and give help to children and those individuals who cannot take care of themselves effectively and efficiently. However, it is also far easier than many people realize to cross a line into becoming a detrimental force on the life of the individual who is receiving the aid because they are no longer required to come up with solutions on their own. This thin line divides the idea of empowerment and enabling and through an analysis of the two perspectives and how it can impact the individual it is possible to see how to be helpful without being detrimental to the needs of the person.

The idea of empowerment is one where individuals attempt to allow for their aid to give a sense of ability to others. “The desire to help others, especially those who mean the most to us, is one of the noblest of human instincts” (Khalegi, 2012). Empowerment is not simply be the action of one individual toward another, however, because the same process can be used on a much larger scale. Children are often the ones in which people feel the greatest need to empower and protect because they are the most in need in terms of inability to protect themselves. When looking at the needs of children in groups such as in a school setting, it is possible to give a sense of empowerment to a large number of individual children for the greater good. This is a form of community empowerment with the idea that the community is a group of people with similar characteristics regardless of age, race, gender, etc. “Community empowerment refers to the process of enabling communities to increase control over their lives. “Communities” are groups of people that may or may not be spatially connected, but who share common interests, concerns or identities” (World Health Organization, 2015). In this light, empowerment is a positive force across the board however when certain actions are taken that go too far in terms of the amount of a given to individuals or communities it is possible to see the way in which empowerment can then become a form of enabling those who are in need.

As previously explained, enabling and empowering are divided by a fine line that is far simpler to cross than many people realize. While some might argue that empowering is a form of bolstering the fortitude of an individual, enabling often has similar effect but has a detrimental result in the long run. “In one sense, “enabling” has the same meaning as “empowering.” It means lending a hand to help people accomplish things they could not do by themselves. More recently, however, it has developed the specialized meaning of offering help that perpetuates rather than solves a problem” (Khalegi, 2012). Although many people think of enabling as an action in regard to negative interests such as drug and alcohol use, it goes much further when looking at the end up the details of this kind of action. Empowerment is intended to reinforce the abilities of an individual or group while enabling it simply allows them to get the desired results from a specific set of action without actually having the personal strength to take the actions that will best serve their unique needs. One issue is that when an individual enables be the negative behavior than others, they themselves are also being detrimental to their own lives as they are putting their own position in jeopardy in terms of being a self-sufficient adult. “Those who habitually enable dysfunctional behavior are often referred to as co-dependent. It’s a telling word, because an enabler’s self-esteem is often dependent on his or her ability and willingness to “help” in inappropriate ways” (Khalegi, 2012). These individuals are having an impact on the lives of another person or group by enabling them to commit actions that otherwise might be harmful to their life. This, as a result, means that the enabler has just as much a problem dealing with the real world situations and scenarios that need to be overcome as the one that is being enabled through their actions.

One piece of information that is important remember is that individuals helping friends and family are not the only one who are guilty of enabling others or in the right by trying to empower them. When looking at the subject of children once again and the rights they have to growth and education, the goal of teachers and administrators is to provide away for students to develop with the best possible mental facilities available to them. However, at times teachers and administrators overlook their setbacks in terms of empowerment and actually end up in labeling negative behaviors through their own misunderstanding of how to deal with the idea of empowerment. “Faculty frequently enable students rather than empower them in both clinical and classroom settings” and in one article “collegiality, communication, accountability, and autonomy are components of a model used to compare empowering versus enabling in the academic setting” (Espeland & Shanta, 2001). Even though the components that were utilized in this study seem to be perfectly harmless, they can lead to an issue of enabling students because the social mores that are created lead to additionally detrimental situations. Group empowerment is a good concept understand when analyzing the role of faculty and teachers in the general world of academia but at the same time it is also important for these faculty members as well as students and parents to understand that they cannot be overly helpful lest they cross the line to being enablers themselves.

In the end, empowering children and those in need is a virtuous action that can allow for individuals to grow and change in a way that will bolster the positive aspects of the reinforcement process. However, even though some individuals might want to focus on the ways in which empowering can alleviate suffering and give a sense of self efficacy to the individual, it is also important to remember that if these actions are not done in a way that only leads to positive results then they also then are enabling negative behaviors to persist. Enabling does not simply refer to the negative actions that people take with regard to self destructive courses of action such as alcohol and drug use and abuse, but instead it can also lead to those actions which simply are detrimental to their ability to live as adults in general. In the end, enabling empowering or both two sides of a single sword and this fine line must be walked with care in order to get the best possible results to everyone involved in the process.

References

Espeland, K., Shanta, L. (2001). Empowering versus enabling in academia. Journal of Nursing Education. 40(8).

Khaleghi, K. (2012). Are You Empowering or Enabling?. https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-anatomy-addiction/201207/are-you-empowering-or-enabling.

World Health Organization. (2015). Community Empowerment. http://www.who.int/healthpromotion/conferences/7gchp/track1/en/.

In order to showcase the positive or negative results of implemented programs, regardless of the market or area of focus, data must be collected that can show the benefits or drawbacks of trial groups. When dealing with the subject of managing issues of obesity in an educational setting, it is important to make sure that all of the different groups affected are adequately analyzed but also to make note of the differences in the unique target populations. In the article entitled Breaking Habits: The Effect of the French Vending Machine Ban on School Snacking and Sugar Intakes two of the key aspects of any research evaluation are covered: long term effects of changes and the effects on sub-groups in a study.

Like with many of the issues surrounding the subject of obesity management in children on a global scale, the individual country being analyzed directly impacts both the base levels on nutrition within the country but also the subsequent chance of a child being stricken with the problems of obesity. In the US, for example, childhood obesity is an issue epidemic proportions because of the fact that so many children show signs of dealing with obesity but also the subsequent mental and physical ramifications on their bodies. “According to data from the 2013/2014 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, one in five U.S. children aged between 12 and 19 exceeded the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention cut-off point for childhood obesity, a figure which has almost doubled over the last 20 years” (Capacci, Mazzocchi, & Shankar 1). Although the study being analyzed in the case of this article is a nationwide concern for France, a correlation on a global scale can still be seen because even though the United States that have a higher level of obesity this is not mean that high sugar intake does not exist even in countries which try to remain as healthy as possible. As a result, it is important to note that this particular article focuses on the effects of the ban on school snacking and sugar intake throughout a variety of different age groups as they have shown that different ages do you react to the effects differently.

One of the key components that helps with this particular article is the fact that it does attempt to look at different correlations between students of different age ranges. Even though students are affected by a national band across the board, it does not mean that they are all affected equally. This is because of the fact that some students either are more likely to bring in snacks from the outside or, at the same time, they have more access to vending machines because older students tend to be seen as more responsible and therefore a given more levity with how they actually interact with any machine. It is shown in the article that the“effectiveness is still disputed because of potential compensation effects (Taber et al., 2014), that is, those children who cannot purchase their snacks or sodas from VMs because of the ban may still get them outside school, with no reduction of their daily intakes” (Capacci, Mazzocchi, & Shankar 3). This could be due to financial considerations in conjunction with ban effectiveness. As a result, economic as well as age factors are taken into consideration by this article and showcase how different groups will react differently to the band. In particular, the fact that students in a school setting are isolated from their parents or have access to vending machines where they are able to access higher sugar content goods each have an impact on the effectiveness on banning sugary snacks in a school setting. As a result, the differentiation between different groups is even more paramount to understanding the effects on the van as instituted on a nationwide movement such as in France. “When considering all meals except the morning snack we find a significant in-crease in sugar intakes, which is suggestive of compensation effects. Research in clinical nutrition associates sweetness with a short-term satiation effect, even when the energy intake is low” (Capacci, Mazzocchi, & Shankar 4). While Michelle Obama is a key example of a first lady who tried to revolutionize be eating habits of students in school lunches, vending machines still provide an outlier that is not directly impacted by school ordinances unless they are done in a way that can help to reduce sugar intake across the board.

For any article that reviews a government policy must be reviewed with a grain of salt. And due to the fact that more often than not people have a skewed view on government regulations, articles such as Breaking Habits: The Effect of the French Vending Machine Ban on School Snacking and Sugar Intakes tend toward viewing these issues work from only one point of view. What then are the biggest issues brought up when looking at the subject of France as a key demographic? Primarily, one might argue that different countries will have vastly different reactions to bans on sugary content in the food in vending machines. In fact, this article actually showcases that the level of school that a student is in has an even greater impact than the overall ban itself on whether or not a student will be able to minimize their sugar intake. “According to the policy setting, the student’s school level determines her exposure to the ban. Since school levels depend on age, we use age as the assignment variable for the intervention” (Capacci, Mazzocchi, & Shankar 7). However, a key component for this article is the fact that it doesn’t attempt to look from different perspective and also attempt to use different modeling techniques so as to help alleviate the conflicting data that the researchers perceive. This is relatively unique because more often than not articles of this typed into focus on only one variable or one contacts crew. The methods utilized by Capacci, Mazzhocchi, and Shankar focuses on “model specification allows for fuzziness in the assignment rule, but it is useful to compare our results to the more restrictive assumption of a sharp assignment. This comparison assesses the extent to which our results depend on the fuzzy specification” (Capacci, Mazzocchi, & Shankar 10). As a result, the overall article actually benefit because it does allow for more variation within the group being analyzed. Instead of focusing on one group, they try to create an overarching analysis that tries to see whether or not the policy is a whole is effective. While they are not able to give a definite answer on every aspect of effectiveness, they do give unique perspectives on a holistic approach to the subject matter.

In the end, children and sugar intake is a hot point issue for countries around the world. In some countries, such as the United States, the issue is more heated due to the fact that it does have a higher rate of childhood obesity nationwide. While looking at the overall content of the study, Breaking Habits: The Effect of the French Vending Machine Ban on School Snacking and Sugar Intakes looks at the subject from a variety of perspectives while giving quantitative backing. It provides a strong basis for understanding the subject while also looking at a variety outcomes in the field.

Works Cited

Capacci, Sara, et al. “Breaking Habits: The Effect of the French Vending Machine Ban on School Snacking and Sugar Intakes.” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, vol. 37, no. 1, 2017, pp. 88–111., doi:10.1002/pam.22032.

The concept of learning is a key point in both the development and execution of educational material and programs across all levels of Academia. However, while much of this theory focuses on the development of children and the acquisition of knowledge between formative years and adulthood, there is a growing body of work dedicated to educating adults and a variety of different fields and the subsequent trials and tribulations associated in this area of expertise. In An Update on Adult Development Theory: New Ways of Thinking About the Life Course, a variety of different aspects of educating adults and the need to understand how working with grown students are analyzed in terms of both life experience and also how they will absorb new information in relation to their larger body of knowledge when compared to children. When comparing this work with others, it is clear that while adult learning is something that is a detailed and extensive field of Interest but it also takes a variety of different stances on the best way to interact with students who are adults because of the fact that the same life experiences that make them more apt to learn a new field also can lead to a more difficult method of streamlining information for absorption in an educational setting.
While some pieces on the subject of educational theory and on adult learning in particular focus on the perspective of a single author or piece collaborated on by a multitude of contributors, this is not always the most effective approach to analyzing such a diverse subject as adult education and learning theory. An Update on Adult Development Theory: New Ways of Thinking About the Life Course acts as a collection of different essays and subject matter that give the reader unique perspectives on different aspects of learning as a whole but, in particular, on how adults will compartmentalize and relate information gained through life experiences and a different kind of perspective in terms of personal narrative, spiritual perspective, and thematic elements in one’s personal life story. By focusing on the key points an adult learning, the authors are able to focus the idea of acquisition of knowledge by adults as a causal relationship between the idea of understanding of the self in relation to new material. Children, in contrast to adults, are students who can be termed tabula rasa or a blank slate or as adults are heavily influenced by the life experiences that have shaped them into the people that they are and their daily lives. This means that while children can often be instructed in new material through a specific regimen that can be tailored to a broad audience, adults will interact with new material in a different way. In particular, the authors focusing on spirituality as well as those who focus on the concept of self as a narrative showcase the fact that as adults are, as the phrase goes, the sum of their parts in relation to the experience which they have so do the means of acquiring new knowledge need to take into account these unique perceptions on information and interpersonal communication. By compiling different fields of study in the concept of adult learning theory, the authors are able to analyze a subject from a diverse body of research which mirrors the same diversity in the adults that are being studied.

While Clark and Caffarella utilize a number of useful sources and points of view to give an overarching analysis of the subject of Adult Development Theory, there are some drawbacks to the means of compiling the data in this manner. The primary concern and difficulty in utilizing this style of compilation when creating a new piece on any area of research is that it can often lead to a weaker main point for the entire composition. In particular, the different kinds of research completed by the individual authors within the entire book means that there are a number of different points of view that can only muddle the overarching theme of how Adult Development Theory can be analyzed in the context of real world applications. When looking closer at individual sections, a clear difference of interpretation on how to deal with Adult Development Theory can be seen in terms of how the individual person being studied will interpret their own life. In Understanding Adult Development as Narrative by Rossitter, for example, the idea is that a person can look at their own life as a sort of narrative that can lead to a deeper understanding of how they can grow and change. This means that the very life that is being analyzed is meant to give the basis for growth and change through organic growth and change. In contrast, Tisdell points out the idea of spirituality and looking at the world through the lens of a miraculous set of meaningful experiences that are not created by the individual but instead affect the individual to shape how they see the world itself. Instead of the self being the focus of growth and change, the growth then comes from outside influences that are out of the direct control of the person. These differing perspectives can be seen in the multitude of authors’ points of view which, while giving numerous reasons that growth can occur also leads to a lack of focus on one particular point of reference for growth and change in the average adult.

When looking at An Update on Adult Development Theory: New Ways of Thinking About the Life Course as a definitive narrative into the field of Adult Development, it is important to look at it in the context of other research into the field and how it can be used to effectively help people with their own attempts to grow and evolve. In Adult Learning: Linking Theory and Practice by Merriem and Bierema, the reader can see parallels in how the research is laid out and how it is analyzed in the context of Adult Development Theory. Just as with the various perspective on Adult Development as explained by Clark and Caffarella, Merriem and Bierema approach the subject from a number of different directions in an attempt to provide a holistic overview of the entire field. As explained in the piece, “An adult is in a different position in the life span than a child. A child is dependent on others for care, learning is a child’s major activity in life, and much of this learning is in preparation for assuming the tasks and responsibilities of adulthood” (Merriem & Bierema, 2014). This is important because while the Clark and Caffarella compilation do give a basis for the reason of analyzing the field of Adult Development from a variety of perspectives, this gives a solid grounding on why so many perspectives exist. For children and the instruction of adolescents in any field, it is possible to create a centralized mode of teaching that can be tailored to virtually any child with ease since they do not have experiences that could affect their acquisition of knowledge, hence tabula rasa. For adults, each person will have to address new information and changes in their lives in relation to not just one life experience but, instead, in relation to a variety of experiences and sets of knowledge already understood by the individual. For example, a person from an affluent family with a six figure salary will address change and learning new information from a drastically different perspective than someone who dropped out of high school and only makes minimum wage. When looking at both pieces with this in mind, the second piece actually reinforces the style of authorship and compilation utilized in the piece by Clark and Caffarella.

When using this knowledge in real world applications, it is important to remember that there is not a single method of instructing and pushing adults to grow and evolve that will work in an identical way to everyone in a classroom or work setting. Due to the unique experiences that every person has, it is important as an educator or influencer to find the way that people relate their experiences to knew knowledge and events that they encounter in life. The idea is to find something which the receiver of new information can relate to and then expound upon that tidbit to try and create a solid means of relating new stimuli to growth and development. An example of this could be as simple as teaching someone a new spreadsheet program. If teaching someone a program such as Excel, a twenty year old would have more tangible experience with similar software while a 60 year old might have more experience with tabulation on a traditional spreadsheet. By using the different perspectives and life experience from narrative, spiritual perspective on their place in the world, or any other number of factors that influence their unique outlook on life, every person can be taught in individualized ways. It leads to a greater understanding of the new material being consumed and then allows for the teacher and the student to more accurately utilize this information to create positive changes and growth in any number of areas in personal and professional realms.

Overall, the different perspectives shown in both pieces allow for the reader to gain a greater understanding of the overall theory of Adult Development as a field but also as a practical means of change in the lives of individuals in any number of settings. By remembering that there is not a single, tried and true means of conveying new information, instructors and influencers have a better chance of finding a different means of conveyance for each person. This makes the entire subject more difficult to grasp for many people than the similar field of Child Development Theory and education because of the breadth of perspectives on effective instruction, but for an educator who takes the time and puts in the effort to create a beneficial education plan it can be extremely useful.

References

Clark, M. And Caffarella, R. (1999). An Update on Adult Development Theory: New Ways of Thinking About the Life Course. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. (84).

Merriem, S. And Bierema, L. (2014). Adult Learning: Linking Theory and Practice.

There are many different areas of the medical field that people rant and rave about in terms of success or failure. However, it is also this same kind of enthusiasm that can, at times, cast a pallor over the fact that some do not always have the necessary quantitative data to support success or failure rates when compared to the qualitative reactions from patients. One are in particular has hit the mainstream train of thought in terms of likely success and positive returns recently – Regenerative Medicine. Through a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the data surrounding on area of this field, that of different techniques in comparison during knee injections to hold off total knee replacement, it will be shown that the field, while controversial, holds promise with both data types.

In order to understand why these kinds of data are important for the study of this field and the subsequent determination of effectiveness, it is first necessary to understand the differences in the two kinds of data. All information can be classified as data of one kind or another but for the stance of validity on a particular field it is important that they be placed into datasets to be analyzed and compared against one another in order to determine validity. Every field of study, whether it be in the arts or the sciences, uses data of one kind or another and any of them can be subdivided into qualitative or quantitative data types. Quantitative data is the one that is most straight forward to many people because it is numerical in nature. Since quantitative data focuses on numbers, values, and comparisons between variables, it is most often used when conducting surveys, comparing scales and results, etc. Math and science tend to rely heavily on quantitative data to find base line determinations on a particular subject. However, it does, at times, lack some of the finesse that qualitative data holds in terms of relating to a particular subject.

Just as quantitative focuses on numbers, qualitative focuses on the lack thereof. Qualitative data is the kind of information that can be gleaned from in depth survey answers which can be expository in nature but also from individual accounts given by subjects in a trial. For example, while we might find that 50 out of 70 saw positive results from a treatment, a statistic that would be quantitative in nature, researchers do not know the variations that each subject in the study experienced. By asking probing questions and getting details, qualitative data is created. It is useful in fields in the sciences and the medical field in particular as this is the data that allows patients to give specific informaiton about what did or did not work and how they feel. Patients all react differently and while the doctors and nurses can see the overall pros and cons of a procedure in terms of time, other factors such as pain and other effects from a treatment can often be described in greater detail which begs the use of qualitative data. Each is useful in its own way.

Now that we have defined the differences in qualitative and quantitative data, the subject of regenerative medicine can be more adequately evaluated. One might ask the question of what is regenerative medicine and receive several answers as there are different sub-fields so it is important to define the issue as definition of a problem allows analysis. For this case, regenerative medicine is the practice of using techniques which can rebuild and help the body to regenerate damaged areas. In particular, the cases of knee injections in an attempt to alleviate problems that would lead to total knee replacement include hyaluronic acid, platelet rich plasma (PRP), and Stem Cell therapy. The issue of total knee replacement in comparison to these kinds of procedures has received greater coverage in the media recently due to the increasing numbers of professionals and celebrities that have started using regenerative medicine techniques to maintain their bodies. While the subject at first seems like a no-brainer, after all a replacement is often the only viable course for many people who have cartiledge degradation on a large scale, the conflicting results on the efficacy of these kinds of procedures makes researchers continue to study these practices.